財政刺激下的世界

市場干預通常是兩面刃,若擴張政策持續,可能會反轉長達十年的通縮,甚至造成嚴重通膨;若能在經濟恢復後適時採取緊縮政策,則低利率、低通膨的雙低時代將可望持續。

因應新冠肺炎而施行的大封鎖嚴重影響全球經濟,各國政府無不卯足全力透過財政與貨幣政策刺激,進一步減緩疫情衝擊。

事實上,市場干預通常是兩面刃,若擴張政策持續,可能會反轉長達十年的通縮,甚至造成嚴重通膨;若能在經濟恢復後適時採取緊縮政策,則低利率、低通膨的雙低時代將可望持續。

各國政府祭出的財政與貨幣擴張政策規模究竟多大?截至2020年5月,規模估計約17兆美元。今年以來量化寬鬆所釋放的資金規模,遠高於2008年全球金融危機時的水準,正是因為過去幾年各國政府濫用量化寬鬆,造成現階段的貨幣政策刺激效果大不如前。反倒是財政政策可行性高,是目前最適合用來補貼受疫情影響產業(如航空公司、銀行及小型零售商等)的手段。

過去十年來,我們不難看到寬鬆貨幣政策所帶來的影響,包括:負利率、平緩的殖利率曲線、低通膨、公司負債增加,以及信用利差收窄等等。事實上,我們沒有足夠的經驗,並不清楚財政政策和貨幣政策同時擴張將對經濟和市場影響有多大。

圖一:全球財政刺激規模已超越2008年

fiscal-stimulus_graph1

財政與貨幣政策雙管齊下

貨幣政策和財政政策之間的主要差別在於,當貨幣刺激產生巨大的流動性衝擊,但讓家庭或公司願意承擔債務和支出。另一方面,財政政策支出是直接增加總需求。大量的失業救濟金和政府的「直升機撒錢」政策,對消費者來說是意外之財,不會產生任何債務;如果刺激政策是針對公共資本支出,不僅會推升經濟增長並創造就業機會,最後將注入私人支出,乘數效應將推動更高的經濟增長。

近期的財政刺激政策主要著重於減輕疫情初期的影響,當失業率上升、企業違約和破產潮發生時,政府可能宣布更多的財政支持。當然,如果這些刺激措施是一次性的,且政府希望暫停赤字擴大或積極降低赤字,中期影響則很可能反映出全球金融危機之後的狀況。假設各國疫情再次爆發,失業率可能會持續好幾年,部分已開發市場和新興市場未來將可能繼續出現巨額赤字。

財政刺激影響分歧 就像翹翹板

財政刺激對已開發市場和新興市場的影響各不相同。已開發國家受惠於低利率、低外債和低通膨,能夠使貨幣和財政政策保持寬鬆,促進高需求、高通膨和更陡峭曲線的循環。但是,並不是所有的已開發市場都能達成這樣的狀態,尤其是歐洲,貨幣和財政政策並非相輔相成,部分國家只能宣布有限度的刺激措施。

新興國家主要存在著兩種不同型態:一種是出於謹慎考慮而很少採取財政刺激措施;另一種是外部資產負債表數據不佳,但仍舊採取財政刺激措施,後者可能面臨外匯和債券市場的脆弱風險。

以新興市場債券指數來看,CEEMEA(中東歐、中東和非洲)國家最脆弱,因為這些國家短期外債較高,今年預估將出現大量財政赤字。這些沉迷於財政浪費的經濟體可能面臨主權評級下調、債券收益率飆升和收益率曲線陡峭的情況,最終將被迫採取緊縮措施。相較而言,新興亞洲經濟體表現相對較強勁,除馬來西亞以外,大多數短期外債皆低於GDP的10%。

圖二:新興亞洲國家財政體質較佳

fiscal-stimulus_graph2   

未來將走向通膨?減緩通膨?

全球持續財政赤字,加上貨幣政策刺激,可能打破長達十年的通貨緊縮的趨勢。全球化告終和供應鏈效率逆轉,加劇了潛在負面的供應面衝擊,進一步加劇了通膨,這種情況類似於第二次世界大戰後期,經歷消極需求和低通膨後,美國經濟在刺激政策下使得通膨急劇上升,最終迫使貨幣政策大幅收緊。

當前的經濟減緩可能需要一段時間才能恢復。此外,遠距工作、對商務旅行和商業房地產的需求減少等結構性改變,可能會緩解通膨壓力。

但仍有幾項市場趨勢,仍仰賴著疲弱的通膨預期。首先是殖利率曲線,在全球金融危機後,財政政策放鬆,收益率曲線顯著陡峭,但隨著緊縮政策實施,收益率曲線出現逆轉,此後收益率大幅下降,由於通膨預期下滑和貨幣政策寬鬆,收益率曲線又趨於平坦。


圖三:全球金融危機以來殖利率大幅下滑

fiscal-stimulus_graph3

但是,這種趨勢也可能反轉。如果財政刺激措施持續,美國國債收益率將飆升,收益率曲線可能會陡峭;反之,這將對利率敏感型股票帶來積極影響,尤其是金融和其他價值型產業。

二種結果

高利率所導致的風險,意味著決策者政策要拿捏得當。當殖利率上升過快,可能增加債務負擔,並使政府再融資問題更複雜;同樣地,若通膨上升而名目利率不變,可能會損害央行的信譽。

如今,中央銀行可能被迫持續長期寬鬆政策,以維持政府的償付能力和流動性,從而使前端利率保持良好。通膨率上升,實質利率進一步下降,那麼財富將出現轉移,從儲蓄者轉移至借款者。另從資產分配的角度來看,股票在投資組合中扮演的角色將比債券更為重要。

總結來看,我們認為疫情所導致前所未有的財政刺激措施,將可能導致二種結果。一種是財政赤字維持,那麼世界將與第二次世界大戰後的發展相似,也就是:需求更高、通膨預期更高、殖利率曲線更加陡峭。反之,如果需求恢復正常後,政府被迫採取緊縮措施(如全球金融危機後情勢),那麼在可預見的未來,低利率和低通膨的時代則將繼續。

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